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How much do we know about the ancient kingdom Balhae that existed for 200 years as north and south states from the late 7^th century to the early 10^th century along with Shilla? Let’s start a historical journey, centering around primary historical records related to Balhae and newly discovered data. It will give you fun to dig out hidden stories in Balhae history along with the diversity of interpretations and importance of data.

Offer to establish ties from King Mu (Dae Mu-ye)

Balhae’s second king Mu, who succeeded the inaugural king Go (Dae Jo-yeong), sent envoys to Japan for the first time and proposed mutual exchange. Historical records related to this are as follows.

Mu-ye regained Goryeo’s old territory and keeps Buyeo’s old customs while controlling various countries and princely states reservedly. But as the road is blocked and the sea is so far away, communication has been stopped and inquiring after good or ill luck has been cut. It’s not until today that we can be on good terms with benevolent people, promise mutual assistance and look for neighbors by sending envoys according to ancient classics… We hope to keep friendship with neighbors long, inheriting the beautiful sound sometimes.

“Shoku Nihongi” Volume 10, Shingu 5th year, January of the lunar calendar

The above record showing King Mu’s request for official ties with Japan is contained in “Shoku Nihongi, Japan’s material completed by Sugano Mamichi and others in 797. Some Japanese scholars tend to interpret the above record at will, saying Balhae’s visit to Japan inherited the previous relationship between Japan and Goguryeo (ruler and ruled, superiors and subjects). A textbook also states: “Balhae sent envoys to Japan to demand diplomatic ties in 727 in its antagonistic relationship with Tang and Shilla and Japan also entered into friendly relations with Balhae in its antagonistic relationship with Shilla.” (“Permanent Japan History B revised edition,” Sancheon Publishing Co., 2019). Let’s review Balhae’s circumstances before and after the dispatch of envoys to find if it’s proper to interpret the record like that.

Different charts of exchange

Left: Korean textbook – Balhae’s external exchange – Korean high school history textbook, Jihaksa Publishing Co., 2011

Right: Japanese textbook – East Asia and Japan-Tang traffic route in mid-8^th century – Japanese high school history textbook, Sancheon Publishing Co., 2019

King Go's neighborly diplomacy

Balhae founder King Go (Dae Jo-yeong) sent envoys to Gokturk first after national foundation in 698 and established diplomatic ties with Shilla in the South and then Tang. As Tang’s Zhongzong offered the normalization of ties while being enthroned again, King Go sent his son to Tang in response. In 713 during the reign of Ruizong, Choi Heun visited Balhae and proclaimed Dae Jo-yeong as “Jwahyowiwonoedae General” and Balhae’s king, and thereafter the exchange of envoys between the two countries became more frequent. Balhae established diplomatic ties with its neighboring countries only 10 years after its foundation and became a full member of international relations in East Asia.

King Mu's achievements and diplomacy

Balhae’s second king Mu (719-737 on the throne)’s most notable achievements were two in number. First, he expanded his country’s territory greatly. Balhae was founded first in areas northeast of Baekdusan Mountain (Taebaeksan Mountain), which is now the Yanbian Korean autonomous region in Jilin Province, China. Following King Go, King Mu extended Balhae’s territory to Goguryeo’s former region westward and where Mohe people resided in northern and northeastern areas. The Balhae chapter of the “New Book of Tang” states: “After enthronement, King Mu pioneered territories greatly and barbarians in the northeastern region became subjects out of fear.” King Mu’s second achievement lay in the external sphere. He opened diplomatic ties with Japan and established a new relationship with Tang through warfare.

Why King Mu sent envoys to Japan

It was in September 727 that Balhae’s first envoys arrived in Japan. The 24-member delegation, including “Yeongwon General” Go In-ui, reached the boundary of Ezo, but Go and 15 others were killed with eight members including Go Je-deok escaping death and arriving in Dewanokuni. In January the following year, they attended a morning assembly to celebrate the new year and offered credentials and specialties. In his credentials, King Mu informed Japan of Balhae’s foundation and delivered his intentions to be on good terms with benevolent people, help each other, and keep friendship with the neighborly Japan amicable for a long time. The Japanese side welcomed this without hesitation. In his credentials delivered to King Mu, the Japanese emperor was delighted with Balhae’s recovery of the old territory and attempt to restore their past friendship and expressed hope for continuous exchange despite wild waves. (“Shoku Nihongi” Volume 10, summer in Shingu 5^th year, April) Balhae maintained close relationships with Japan, sending envoys to Japan 34 times after 727; Japan dispatched envoys to Balhae 13 times.

Balhae Jungdaeseongcheop (Diplomatic paper Balhae’s jungdaeseong sent to Japan’s daizukan. Composition of Balhae delegation, characters and roles recorded) – preserved at imperial library, Japan Imperial Household Agency

Meaning of “regaining Goryeo's old territory and keeping Buyeo's old customs”

In his credentials, King Mu said, “Balhae regained Goryeo’s old territory and keeps Buyeo’s old customs.” Japan learned that Balhae inherited Goguryeo, stating: “Balhae is the former Goryeo (“Shoku Nihongi” Volume 10, Shingu fourth year, December).” “Goryeo’s old territory” meant that Balhae was recovered in Goguryeo’s territory; “Buyeo’s old customs” meant that Balhae was keeping the customs of Buyeo, an early state in Manchuria, in terms of perception and thought. In other words, Balhae demonstrated to Japan that Balhae was a true ruler and inheritor in Manchuria both territorially and mentally.

Purpose of Balhae's exchange with Japan

Many people seem to understand the Balhae-Japan exchange purely from Japan’s position. A case in point is the claim that Balhae needed Japan’s military aid and Japan took this opportunity to dismiss Balhae as a princely state. Yet their bilateral exchange was a perilous journey crossing the stormy East Sea, risking lives. Balhae was not in need of Japan’s military aid because East Asia was peaceful amid little warfare after the late 8^th century. More importantly, Balhae visited Japan to provide essential information and commodities for Japan, isolated from the outside world, and obtain huge profits in the process. Japan’s historical data also states: “Balhae envoys are merchants in fact and short of neighborly guests. It does harm to the country to treat the merchants as guests.” (“Nihon Koki” Volume 34, Tencho third year, March, Mujinzo)